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(Redirected from Remote Supervisor Adapter)Remote supervisor adapter (RSA) is the out-of-band management interface card optional on most IBM x86-based server machines sold under the IBM System x brand.An IBM Remote Supervisor Adapter II installed in an eServer 326An IBM Remote Supervisor Adapter IISimilar in functionality to HP iLO, Dell DRAC, Sun SSP or Real WeaselRemote management is independent of the status of the managed server.Contents1 RSA features 2 Adapter Versions 2.1 Advanced Systems Management Adapter (ASMA) 2.2 Remote Supervisor Adapter (RSA) 2.3 Remote Supervisor Adapter II (RSA-II) 2.3.1 Cable 2.4 Remote Supervisor Adapter II Slimline (RSA-II Slimline) 3 Peculiarities 3.1 Invisible to Traceroute 3.2 Reliability Problems 4 Related 4.1 BladeCenter Management Module (BCMM) 4.2 BladeCenter Advanced Management Module (BCAMM) 4.3 Advanced Systems Management Processor (ASMP) 4.4 Integrated Systems Management Processor (ISMP) 4.5 Baseboard Management Controller (BMC) 5 References // RSA featuresRemote control of hardware and operating systems Web-based management with standard Web browsers (no other software is required) Scriptable command-line interface and text-based serial console redirect System-independent graphical console redirection Remote diskette and CD-ROM drive support Adapter VersionsAdvanced Systems Management Adapter (ASMA)This is a full-length ISA or PCI adapter. The ISA version is very rare, and was only ever supported in one or two servers. This adapter can be accessed either in-band through a device driver, or out-band over serial or 10Mbit Ethernet.In addition, this adapter supports chaining of IBM Servers with Advanced Systems Management Processors (ASMP) using RJ45 patch cables (RS485 signal), to reduce the number of adapters required. A total of 12 systems can be controlled this way using a single adapter.The PCI version is supported under Linux through the ibmasm driver.Supported servers:IBM Netfinity 4500R IBM Netfinity 5000, 5100, 5500, 5500 M10, 5500 M20, 5600 IBM Netfinity 6000R IBM Netfinity 7000 M10, 7100, 7600 IBM Netfinity 8500R IBM eServer xSeries 230, 240, 250 IBM eServer xSeries 330 (8654), 340, 350, 370 Remote Supervisor Adapter (RSA)This is a half-length PCI adapter, which can be accessed either in-band through a device driver, or out-band over serial or Ethernet.In addition, this adapter supports chaining of IBM Servers with Integrated Systems Management Processors (ISMP) using RJ45 patch cables (RS485 signal), to reduce the number of adapters required.The adapter is supported under Linux through the ibmasm driver.This is the first version to support remote KVM over Ethernet. But when chaining is used, only the server with the adapter installed supports the remote KVM function.Supported servers:IBM eServer xSeries 205, 225 (8647), 232, 255 IBM eServer xSeries 305, 330, 335, 342, 345, 360 IBM eServer xSeries 440, 445, 450, 455 Remote Supervisor Adapter II (RSA-II)This is a half-length PCI adapter, which can be accessed either in-band through a device driver, or out-band over serial or Ethernet.In addition, this adapter supports chaining of IBM Servers with Integrated Systems Management Processors (ISMP) using RJ45 patch cables (RS485 signal), to reduce the number of adapters required.This adapter (when properly cabled) can be accessed for in-band management through a USB driver.This adapter has its own ATI video chip, and will cause the onboard video chip to get disabled. The reason for this was to resolve some of the problems with capturing the video for the remote KVM function that the original RSA experienced. Just like the original RSA, in the event of chaining the remote KVM function is only supported on the server with the adapter installed.Supported servers:IBM eServer 326, 326m IBM eServer xSeries 206, 225 (8649), 226, 235, 255 IBM eServer xSeries 305, 306, 306m, 335, 345, 365 IBM eServer xSeries 445 CableThe RSA-II requires a 20-pin cable (called an FRU 02R1661 cable for x345) to attach to the motherboard of the server. Without this cable the remote video facilities will still work, and if the external USB cable is connected, the remote keyboard and mouse will work -- but nothing else (including power control) will function properly. Moreover, some servers will pause for 30-120 seconds after power-on if the RSA-II is installed but the cable is missing.Different cables are required for different servers, and as of April 2008 it appears that the cards themselves are far more plentiful on the used market than certain cables -- often the cables sell for more than the cards themselves!Older servers use what is known as the "planar cable". Newer servers use the cable shown in the image to the right:One type of IBM Remote Supervisor Adapter II internal cable (73P9312)Remote Supervisor Adapter II Slimline (RSA-II Slimline)This is a special version of the RSA-II that does not need a PCI slot. Instead it is plugged into a dedicated slot on the systemboard, like a mini-pci adapter. This version also does not have a video controller anymore like the RSA-II.Out-band management is provided by a dedicated Ethernet port on the server, which is not connected if the RSA-II Slimline is not installed. In-Band management is provided by the same USB driver as the RSA-II.Supported servers:IBM eServer xSeries 236, 260 IBM eServer xSeries 336, 346, 366 IBM eServer xSeries 460, MXE-460 IBM System x 3200, 3250, 3400, 3500, 3550, 3650, 3655, 3755, 3800, 3850, 3950 PeculiaritiesInvisible to TracerouteThe network stack used by the RSAII does not respond to UDP packets sent to a closed port; therefore, it appears to be "invisible" to traceroutes based on UDP (the default for non-Windows systems).Reliability ProblemsA defect in the design of the RSA can cause it to go into a state in which the remote video capabilities are disabled. Unfortunately, once in this state the only way to correct the situation is to physically remove power from the RSA and the server; no amount of remote restarting will correct the problem. Because the point of the RSA is to eliminate the need for this sort of physical intervention to clear errors, this flaw calls into question the usefulness of the device.This flaw is documented on IBM's website at [1]RelatedBladeCenter Management Module (BCMM)This is the management module of the IBM BladeCenter and IBM BladeCenter T.Its function is very similar to that of the RSA-IIThe BCMM provides an external 10/100Mbit Ethernet connection and shared VGA, PS/2 Keyboard and PS/2 Mouse ports. Internally the VGA and PS/2 ports are switchable between blades. The PS/2 ports are internally seen to the blades as USB.BladeCenter Advanced Management Module (BCAMM)This is the management module of the IBM BladeCenter H and IBM BladeCenter HT.Advanced Systems Management Processor (ASMP)This is an integrated Service Processor on select IBM Intel-based servers. It was succeeded by the ISMP. Out-of-band management is possible using a serial port (shared with the OS), or by adding the Advanced Systems Management Adapter (ASMA).These servers have ASMP functionality:IBM Netfinity 4500R IBM Netfinity 5000, 5100, 5500, 5600 IBM Netfinity 6000R IBM Netfinity 7100, 7600 IBM xSeries 130 (8654), 135 (8654), 150 IBM xSeries 230, 240, 250 IBM xSeries 330, 340, 350 Integrated Systems Management Processor (ISMP)This is an integrated Service Processor on select IBM Intel-based servers. It was succeeded by the BMC. Out-of-band management is possible by adding the RSA or RSA-II.These servers have ISMP functionality:IBM xSeries 232, 235, 236, 255 IBM xSeries 335, 342, 345 Baseboard Management Controller (BMC)On the latest IBM Intel-based servers a BMC is standard, and optionally the RSA-II Slimline can be added.References^ No graphics displayed with remote login to IBM RSA Web interface remote control option - Servers IBM Remote supervisor adapter User's Guide IBM RSA-II and RSA-II Slimline User's Guide IBM RSA-II - Overview IBM Service Processors support matrix Categories: Out-of-band management IBM computers
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2009年3月31日星期二
Tay Rail Bridge
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Tay Rail BridgeTay Bridge at Dundee, Scotland from the Dundee LawCarriesRail trafficCrossesFirth of TayLocaleDundee to Wormit, ScotlandTotallength3,264metres (10,710ft)Beginningdate of construction22 July 1871 (1st)6 July 1883 (2nd)Completiondateearly 1878 (1st)1887 (2nd)Openingdate1 June 1878 (1st)13 July 1887 (2nd)Destructiondate28 December 1879 (1st)Coordinates5626?19?N 259?19?W? / ?56.43872鐧?2.988486鐧? / 56.43872; -2.988486A view of the Tay Bridge from DundeeThe Tay Bridge (sometimes unofficially the Tay Rail Bridge) is a railway bridge approximately two and a quarter miles (three and a half kilometres) long[1] that spans the Firth of Tay in Scotland, between the city of Dundee and the suburb of Wormit in Fife (grid reference NO391277).As with the Forth Bridge, the Tay Bridge has also been called the Tay Rail Bridge since the construction of a road bridge over the firth, the Tay Road Bridge. The rail bridge replaced an early train ferry."Tay Bridge" was also the codename for the funeral plans for Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother.Contents1 The first Tay Bridge 1.1 The Tay Bridge Disaster 2 The second bridge 3 See also 4 References 4.1 Notes 4.2 Bibliography 5 External links // The first Tay BridgeOriginal Tay Bridge from the northThe original Tay Bridge was designed by noted railway engineer Thomas Bouch, who received a knighthood following the bridge's completion.[2] It was a lattice-grid design, combining cast and wrought iron. The design was well known, having been used first by Kennard in the Crumlin Viaduct in South Wales in 1858[citation needed], following the innovative use of cast iron in The Crystal Palace. However, the Crystal Palace was not as heavily loaded as a railway bridge. A previous cast iron design, the Dee bridge which collapsed in 1847, failed due to poor use of cast-iron girders. Later, Gustave Eiffel used a similar design to create several large viaducts in the Massif Central (1867).Proposals for constructing a bridge across the River Tay date back to at least 1854. The North British Railway (Tay Bridge) Act received the Royal Assent on 15 July 1870 and the foundation stone was laid on 22 July 1871. As the bridge extended out into the river, it shortly became clear that the original survey of the estuary had not been competent. The bedrock, at a shallow depth near the banks, was found to descend deeper and deeper, until it was too deep to act as a foundation for the bridge piers. Bouch had to redesign the piers, and to set them very deep in the estuary bed to compensate for having no support underneath. He also reduced the number of piers by making the spans of the superstructure girders longer than before. The first engine crossed the bridge on 22 September 1877, and upon its completion in early 1878 the Tay Bridge was the longest in the world. The bridge was opened on 1 June 1878.[3]While visiting the city, Ulysses S. Grant commented that it was "a big bridge for a small city".The Tay Bridge DisasterMain article: Tay Bridge disasterOn 28 December 1879, the first bridge collapsed during a violent storm, while a train was crossing it. Seventy-five people were killed, including Sir Thomas' son-in-law. The disaster was commemorated in one of the best-known verse efforts of William McGonagall.The second bridgeTay Bridge, central sectionA closeup of the central section of the second Tay BridgeA new double-track bridge was designed by William Henry Barlow and built by William Arrol & Co. 60 feet (18 m) upstream of, and parallel to, the original bridge. The bridge proposal was formally incorporated in July 1881 and the foundation stone laid on 6 July 1883. Construction involved 25,000 tons of iron and steel, 70,000 tons of concrete, ten million bricks (weighing 37,500 tons) and three million rivets. Fourteen men lost their lives during its construction, mostly due to drowning.The stumps of the original bridge piers are still visible above the surface of the Tay even at high tide.The second bridge opened on 13 July 1887 and remains in use. In 2003, a ?20.85million strengthening and refurbishment project on the bridge won the British Construction Industry Civil Engineering Award, in consideration of the staggering scale and logistics involved. More than 1,000 tonnes of bird droppings were scraped off the ironwork lattice of the bridge using hand tools, and bagged into 25 kg sacks. Hundreds of thousands of rivets were removed and replaced, all work being done in very exposed conditions, high over a firth with fast-running tides.The full length of the second Tay Bridge.See alsoList of places in Angus History of Dundee David Kirkaldy Harry Watts ReferencesNotes^ including a brick viaduct. ^ Firth of Tay Bridge (1877) in the Structurae database ^ Thomas, John (1969). The North British Railway, vol. 1. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-4697-0. BibliographyCharles Matthew Norrie, Bridging the Years: A Short History of British Civil Engineering, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., 1956. Charles McKean Battle for the North: The Tay and Forth bridges and the 19th century railway wars Granta, 2006, ISBN 1-86207-852-1 John Rapley, Thomas Bouch: the builder of the Tay Bridge, Stroud: Tempus, 2006, ISBN 0-7524-3695-3 External linksFirth of Tay Bridge (1877) in the Structurae database Firth of Tay Bridge (1887) in the Structurae database Tay Bridge page on railscot.co.uk Coordinates: 5626?14.4?N 259?18.4?W? / ?56.437333鐧?2.988444鐧? / 56.437333; -2.988444Categories: Bridges completed in 1887 Category A listed buildings History of Dundee History of Fife Transport in Dundee Transport in Fife Railway bridges in Scotland Bridge disasters in the United KingdomHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since August 2008
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Tay Rail BridgeTay Bridge at Dundee, Scotland from the Dundee LawCarriesRail trafficCrossesFirth of TayLocaleDundee to Wormit, ScotlandTotallength3,264metres (10,710ft)Beginningdate of construction22 July 1871 (1st)6 July 1883 (2nd)Completiondateearly 1878 (1st)1887 (2nd)Openingdate1 June 1878 (1st)13 July 1887 (2nd)Destructiondate28 December 1879 (1st)Coordinates5626?19?N 259?19?W? / ?56.43872鐧?2.988486鐧? / 56.43872; -2.988486A view of the Tay Bridge from DundeeThe Tay Bridge (sometimes unofficially the Tay Rail Bridge) is a railway bridge approximately two and a quarter miles (three and a half kilometres) long[1] that spans the Firth of Tay in Scotland, between the city of Dundee and the suburb of Wormit in Fife (grid reference NO391277).As with the Forth Bridge, the Tay Bridge has also been called the Tay Rail Bridge since the construction of a road bridge over the firth, the Tay Road Bridge. The rail bridge replaced an early train ferry."Tay Bridge" was also the codename for the funeral plans for Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother.Contents1 The first Tay Bridge 1.1 The Tay Bridge Disaster 2 The second bridge 3 See also 4 References 4.1 Notes 4.2 Bibliography 5 External links // The first Tay BridgeOriginal Tay Bridge from the northThe original Tay Bridge was designed by noted railway engineer Thomas Bouch, who received a knighthood following the bridge's completion.[2] It was a lattice-grid design, combining cast and wrought iron. The design was well known, having been used first by Kennard in the Crumlin Viaduct in South Wales in 1858[citation needed], following the innovative use of cast iron in The Crystal Palace. However, the Crystal Palace was not as heavily loaded as a railway bridge. A previous cast iron design, the Dee bridge which collapsed in 1847, failed due to poor use of cast-iron girders. Later, Gustave Eiffel used a similar design to create several large viaducts in the Massif Central (1867).Proposals for constructing a bridge across the River Tay date back to at least 1854. The North British Railway (Tay Bridge) Act received the Royal Assent on 15 July 1870 and the foundation stone was laid on 22 July 1871. As the bridge extended out into the river, it shortly became clear that the original survey of the estuary had not been competent. The bedrock, at a shallow depth near the banks, was found to descend deeper and deeper, until it was too deep to act as a foundation for the bridge piers. Bouch had to redesign the piers, and to set them very deep in the estuary bed to compensate for having no support underneath. He also reduced the number of piers by making the spans of the superstructure girders longer than before. The first engine crossed the bridge on 22 September 1877, and upon its completion in early 1878 the Tay Bridge was the longest in the world. The bridge was opened on 1 June 1878.[3]While visiting the city, Ulysses S. Grant commented that it was "a big bridge for a small city".The Tay Bridge DisasterMain article: Tay Bridge disasterOn 28 December 1879, the first bridge collapsed during a violent storm, while a train was crossing it. Seventy-five people were killed, including Sir Thomas' son-in-law. The disaster was commemorated in one of the best-known verse efforts of William McGonagall.The second bridgeTay Bridge, central sectionA closeup of the central section of the second Tay BridgeA new double-track bridge was designed by William Henry Barlow and built by William Arrol & Co. 60 feet (18 m) upstream of, and parallel to, the original bridge. The bridge proposal was formally incorporated in July 1881 and the foundation stone laid on 6 July 1883. Construction involved 25,000 tons of iron and steel, 70,000 tons of concrete, ten million bricks (weighing 37,500 tons) and three million rivets. Fourteen men lost their lives during its construction, mostly due to drowning.The stumps of the original bridge piers are still visible above the surface of the Tay even at high tide.The second bridge opened on 13 July 1887 and remains in use. In 2003, a ?20.85million strengthening and refurbishment project on the bridge won the British Construction Industry Civil Engineering Award, in consideration of the staggering scale and logistics involved. More than 1,000 tonnes of bird droppings were scraped off the ironwork lattice of the bridge using hand tools, and bagged into 25 kg sacks. Hundreds of thousands of rivets were removed and replaced, all work being done in very exposed conditions, high over a firth with fast-running tides.The full length of the second Tay Bridge.See alsoList of places in Angus History of Dundee David Kirkaldy Harry Watts ReferencesNotes^ including a brick viaduct. ^ Firth of Tay Bridge (1877) in the Structurae database ^ Thomas, John (1969). The North British Railway, vol. 1. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-4697-0. BibliographyCharles Matthew Norrie, Bridging the Years: A Short History of British Civil Engineering, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., 1956. Charles McKean Battle for the North: The Tay and Forth bridges and the 19th century railway wars Granta, 2006, ISBN 1-86207-852-1 John Rapley, Thomas Bouch: the builder of the Tay Bridge, Stroud: Tempus, 2006, ISBN 0-7524-3695-3 External linksFirth of Tay Bridge (1877) in the Structurae database Firth of Tay Bridge (1887) in the Structurae database Tay Bridge page on railscot.co.uk Coordinates: 5626?14.4?N 259?18.4?W? / ?56.437333鐧?2.988444鐧? / 56.437333; -2.988444Categories: Bridges completed in 1887 Category A listed buildings History of Dundee History of Fife Transport in Dundee Transport in Fife Railway bridges in Scotland Bridge disasters in the United KingdomHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since August 2008
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Marble
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For other uses, see Marble (disambiguation).Marble.Taj Mahal, world-famous monument made of marble.Venus de Milo, front.Natural patterns on the polished surface of "landscape marble" can resemble a city skyline or even trees (see photo).Blocks of cut marble at the historic mill in Marble, Colorado.Black D?bnik marble portal (17th century) of St. Wojciech's Church in Krak楂?Marble from Italy.Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone, composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3). It is extensively used for sculpture, as a building material, and in many other applications. The word "marble" is colloquially used to refer to many other stones that are capable of taking a high polish.Contents1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 Types of marble 4 Construction marble 5 Industrial use of marble 6 Production 7 Artificial marble 8 Cultural associations 9 See also 10 References 11 External links // EtymologyThe word "marble" derives from the Greek ???????? (marmaron)[1] and that from ???????? (marmaros), "crystalline rock", "shining stone"[2][3], perhaps from the verb ???????? (marmair?), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"[4]. This stem is also the basis for the English word "marmoreal" meaning "marble-like".OriginsMarble is a metamorphic rock resulting from regional or rarely contact metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, either limestone or dolomite rock, or metamorphism of older marble. This metamorphic process causes a complete recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking mosaic of calcite, aragonite and/or dolomite crystals. The temperatures and pressures necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and sedimentary textures present in the original rock.Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of very pure limestones. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally high magnesium limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.Types of marbleSome historically important kinds of marble, named after the locations of their quarries, includeMarbleColorLocationCountry/RegionAegean WhiteWhiteVolosGreeceBeijing WhiteWhiteChinaBlack MarbleBasqueSpainBlack MarbleD?bnikPolandBlack MarbleKilkennyIrelandBoticena and Onyx(Green)PakistanBra?Island of Bra?CroatiaBrown marbleCh?cinyPolandCarrara marblewhite or blue-grayCarraraItalyConnemara marbleGreenConnemaraIrelandDanby marbleDanbyVermontDurango MarbleCoyote QuarryMexicoFauskeNorwayGreen MarbleIndiaKatni MarbleLlano PinkCentral TexasLuni marbleLuniItalyMacaelSpainMakranaGrayish whiteIndiaMalagori WhitePakistanNabresinaTriesteItalyParian marbleFine-grained semitranslucent pure-whiteIsland of ParosGreecePenteli MarbleFlawless white with a uniform, faint yellow tintPenteliGreeceProconnesus MarbleIsland of MarmaraTurkeyRed MarbleRu?chi?aRomaniaRosa EgeoPinkVolosGreeceRouge de RanceRedRanceBelgiumRoyal WhiteWhiteChinaRuskeala Marblewhite, gray, blackRuskealaFinland/RussiaSivec or Macedonian Bianco SivecWhitePrilepRepublic of MacedoniaThassosSnow white, White,Grayish white, White with pink veiningIsland of ThassosGreeceVencac WhiteWhiteArandjelovacSerbiaVietnam WhiteGrayish WhiteVietnamYuleUniform pure whiteMarble, ColoradoColoradoWhite marbles, like Carrara in Italy, Royal White and Beijing White in China and Malagori of Pakistan, have been prized for sculpture since classical times. This preference has to do with the softness and relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic "waxy" look which gives "life" to marble sculptures of the human body.Construction marbleIn the construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term "marble" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, "Tennessee marble" is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation.Industrial use of marbleColorless or light-colored marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries. Finely ground marble or calcium carbonate powder is a component in paper, and in consumer products such as toothpaste, plastics, and paints. Ground calcium carbonate can be made from limestone, chalk, and marble; about three-quarters of the ground calcium carbonate worldwide is made from marble. Ground calcium carbonate is used as a coating pigment for paper because of its high brightness and as a paper filler because it strengthens the sheet and imparts high brightness. Ground calcium carbonate is used in consumer products such as a food additive, in toothpaste, and as an inert filler in pills. It is used in plastics because it imparts stiffness, impact strength, dimensional stability, and thermal conductivity. It is used in paints because it is a good filler and extender, has high brightness, and is weather resistant. However, the growth in demand for ground calcium carbonate in the last decade has mostly been for a coating pigment in paper.Calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "lime"), which has many applications including being a primary component of many forms of cement.Mississippian marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah, USA.ProductionAccording to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. dimension marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000-2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 20002005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.Artificial marbleFaux marble or faux marbling is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble (not to be confused with paper marbling). Marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble.Cultural associationsAs the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc.Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.See alsocultured marble marble powder with a binder. faux marbling painting surfaces to look like marble. marble sculpture paper marbling Pietre dure inlaying with marble and other stones. scagliola姊歮itating marble with plasterwork. References^ Marmaron, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus ^ Marmaros, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus ^ Marble, Compact Oxford English Dictionary ^ Marmair?, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to: MarbleDimension Stone Statistics and Information - United States Geological Survey minerals information for dimension stone Learning to carve by Marc Levoy. Tips for cleaning marble USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension Categories: Sculpture materials Metamorphic rocks Limestone Marble Stone Greek loanwords
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For other uses, see Marble (disambiguation).Marble.Taj Mahal, world-famous monument made of marble.Venus de Milo, front.Natural patterns on the polished surface of "landscape marble" can resemble a city skyline or even trees (see photo).Blocks of cut marble at the historic mill in Marble, Colorado.Black D?bnik marble portal (17th century) of St. Wojciech's Church in Krak楂?Marble from Italy.Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone, composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3). It is extensively used for sculpture, as a building material, and in many other applications. The word "marble" is colloquially used to refer to many other stones that are capable of taking a high polish.Contents1 Etymology 2 Origins 3 Types of marble 4 Construction marble 5 Industrial use of marble 6 Production 7 Artificial marble 8 Cultural associations 9 See also 10 References 11 External links // EtymologyThe word "marble" derives from the Greek ???????? (marmaron)[1] and that from ???????? (marmaros), "crystalline rock", "shining stone"[2][3], perhaps from the verb ???????? (marmair?), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"[4]. This stem is also the basis for the English word "marmoreal" meaning "marble-like".OriginsMarble is a metamorphic rock resulting from regional or rarely contact metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, either limestone or dolomite rock, or metamorphism of older marble. This metamorphic process causes a complete recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking mosaic of calcite, aragonite and/or dolomite crystals. The temperatures and pressures necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and sedimentary textures present in the original rock.Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of very pure limestones. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally high magnesium limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.Types of marbleSome historically important kinds of marble, named after the locations of their quarries, includeMarbleColorLocationCountry/RegionAegean WhiteWhiteVolosGreeceBeijing WhiteWhiteChinaBlack MarbleBasqueSpainBlack MarbleD?bnikPolandBlack MarbleKilkennyIrelandBoticena and Onyx(Green)PakistanBra?Island of Bra?CroatiaBrown marbleCh?cinyPolandCarrara marblewhite or blue-grayCarraraItalyConnemara marbleGreenConnemaraIrelandDanby marbleDanbyVermontDurango MarbleCoyote QuarryMexicoFauskeNorwayGreen MarbleIndiaKatni MarbleLlano PinkCentral TexasLuni marbleLuniItalyMacaelSpainMakranaGrayish whiteIndiaMalagori WhitePakistanNabresinaTriesteItalyParian marbleFine-grained semitranslucent pure-whiteIsland of ParosGreecePenteli MarbleFlawless white with a uniform, faint yellow tintPenteliGreeceProconnesus MarbleIsland of MarmaraTurkeyRed MarbleRu?chi?aRomaniaRosa EgeoPinkVolosGreeceRouge de RanceRedRanceBelgiumRoyal WhiteWhiteChinaRuskeala Marblewhite, gray, blackRuskealaFinland/RussiaSivec or Macedonian Bianco SivecWhitePrilepRepublic of MacedoniaThassosSnow white, White,Grayish white, White with pink veiningIsland of ThassosGreeceVencac WhiteWhiteArandjelovacSerbiaVietnam WhiteGrayish WhiteVietnamYuleUniform pure whiteMarble, ColoradoColoradoWhite marbles, like Carrara in Italy, Royal White and Beijing White in China and Malagori of Pakistan, have been prized for sculpture since classical times. This preference has to do with the softness and relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic "waxy" look which gives "life" to marble sculptures of the human body.Construction marbleIn the construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term "marble" is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, "Tennessee marble" is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation.Industrial use of marbleColorless or light-colored marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries. Finely ground marble or calcium carbonate powder is a component in paper, and in consumer products such as toothpaste, plastics, and paints. Ground calcium carbonate can be made from limestone, chalk, and marble; about three-quarters of the ground calcium carbonate worldwide is made from marble. Ground calcium carbonate is used as a coating pigment for paper because of its high brightness and as a paper filler because it strengthens the sheet and imparts high brightness. Ground calcium carbonate is used in consumer products such as a food additive, in toothpaste, and as an inert filler in pills. It is used in plastics because it imparts stiffness, impact strength, dimensional stability, and thermal conductivity. It is used in paints because it is a good filler and extender, has high brightness, and is weather resistant. However, the growth in demand for ground calcium carbonate in the last decade has mostly been for a coating pigment in paper.Calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "lime"), which has many applications including being a primary component of many forms of cement.Mississippian marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah, USA.ProductionAccording to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. dimension marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000-2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 20002005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.Artificial marbleFaux marble or faux marbling is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble (not to be confused with paper marbling). Marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble.Cultural associationsAs the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc.Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.See alsocultured marble marble powder with a binder. faux marbling painting surfaces to look like marble. marble sculpture paper marbling Pietre dure inlaying with marble and other stones. scagliola姊歮itating marble with plasterwork. References^ Marmaron, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus ^ Marmaros, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus ^ Marble, Compact Oxford English Dictionary ^ Marmair?, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to: MarbleDimension Stone Statistics and Information - United States Geological Survey minerals information for dimension stone Learning to carve by Marc Levoy. Tips for cleaning marble USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed USGS 2005 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Crushed USGS 2006 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension Categories: Sculpture materials Metamorphic rocks Limestone Marble Stone Greek loanwords
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Vera Bradley
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Vera Bradley Designs, Inc.?TypePrivateFounded1982Founder(s)Patricia Miller,Barbara Bradley BaekgaardHeadquartersFort Wayne, Indiana, United StatesKey peopleMichael C. Ray (CEO)David Traylor (CFO)Kim Colby (EVP of Design)Jill Nichols (COO)Productshandbags, weekend and travel accessories, wallets, watches, belts, glasses cases, cosmetic cases, umbrellas, napkins, placemats, tableware, bedding, furniture, fine rugs, accessory coverings, and stationeryNet income$100M USD[1]Employees200+ (regular),[1] 800 (contract)[2]Websitewww.verabradley.comVera Bradley Designs, Inc. is an American design company best known for its soft, brightly patterned bags.[1] The Fort Wayne, Indiana company produces a variety of products, including quilted cotton luggage, handbags and accessories. There are 3,500 retailers of Vera Bradley and stand alone Vera Bradley stores.[1]Contents1 History 2 Products 3 Collections 3.1 Handbags 3.2 Accessories 3.3 Travel 3.4 Microfiber 3.5 Stationery 3.6 Limited editions 4 The Vera Bradley Foundation 5 References 6 External links // HistoryThe company was founded in March 1982 by Patricia Miller and Barbara Bradley Baekgaard, a 1962 graduate of Marymount College. Named after Baekgaard's mother, the company got its start when both were inspired while awaiting a flight in Atlanta, where they noticed a "definite lack of feminine-looking luggage".[3]ProductsA Peacock-patterned Vera Bradley bag.Vera Bradley bags come in several sizes and styles, as well as many different patterns and colors. There are travel duffels, totes, purses, wallets, eyeglass and sunglass cases, cosmetic cases, and jewelry cases. There are also umbrellas, napkins, placemats, rolling luggage, tableware, rugs, accessories, and stationery.Periodically, the company will retire a pattern. When patterns retire, new ones are produced. New patterns are released four times per year: spring, summer, fall, and winter.CollectionsAll collections are available in a variety of colors and patterns.HandbagsVera Bradley makes several different types of handbags. Some names include the Amy, the Hipster, the Tote, the Morgan, the Hannah, the Betsy, and the Villager. The handbags are made out of quilted cotton and are released in a variety of patterns.AccessoriesVera Bradley makes coordinating accessories. The accessories are available in all of the Signature Cotton patterns, except for the Mosaic pattern which only comes in limited accessories and handbags. There is also a line of flip-flops, sunglasses and beach towels.TravelThe Vera Bradley Travel Collection includes Classic Cotton duffel/travel bags (made from the same fabric as the traditional handbags and accessories), as well as rolling luggage.MicrofiberAlong with the Signature Cotton collection, Vera Bradley releases a Microfiber line during the same period new patterns are released. Microfiber lines are released twice a year, each time with different style bags, detail stitching, and inside prints. The company has released brown and black Microfiber pieces; most recently, they created a black line for the Spring 09 collection that involved Electric Blue and Charcoal stitching.StationeryThe stationery collection includes pencils, notepads, binders, notebooks and stationery cards. All of the products are in the Vera Bradley classic cotton patterns.Limited editionsVera Bradley has also come out with a variety limited edition accessories. Some of the limited editions include the pet collection, the Seaside Collection, the Tropical Silk Collection, the Jacquard Line, and the 25th Anniversary Collection.The Vera Bradley FoundationThe Vera Bradley Foundation supports Breast Cancer Research. Sales from the Pink Elephants (retired), Pinwheel Pink, and Hope Garden prints benefit the organization.References^ a b c d Wellington, Elizabeth (August 23, 2007). "Vera Bradley bags: Blooming hot". The Philadelphia Inquirer. pp.E01. ^ Heher, Ashley (April 24, 2006), Younger Buyers Fuel Vera Bradley's Growth, The Washington Post, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/24/AR2006042400717.html, retrieved on 2008-02-17 ^ "Company Information". http://www.verabradley.com/Site/Company/OurCompany.aspx. Retrieved on 2007-08-09. External linksVera Bradley official site Vera Bradley Foundation for Breast Cancer Designer on the Rise: Vera Bradley by Teen Scene Magazine Categories: Clothing companies of the United States Companies based in Fort Wayne, Indiana Companies established in 1982 2000s fashion
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Vera Bradley Designs, Inc.?TypePrivateFounded1982Founder(s)Patricia Miller,Barbara Bradley BaekgaardHeadquartersFort Wayne, Indiana, United StatesKey peopleMichael C. Ray (CEO)David Traylor (CFO)Kim Colby (EVP of Design)Jill Nichols (COO)Productshandbags, weekend and travel accessories, wallets, watches, belts, glasses cases, cosmetic cases, umbrellas, napkins, placemats, tableware, bedding, furniture, fine rugs, accessory coverings, and stationeryNet income$100M USD[1]Employees200+ (regular),[1] 800 (contract)[2]Websitewww.verabradley.comVera Bradley Designs, Inc. is an American design company best known for its soft, brightly patterned bags.[1] The Fort Wayne, Indiana company produces a variety of products, including quilted cotton luggage, handbags and accessories. There are 3,500 retailers of Vera Bradley and stand alone Vera Bradley stores.[1]Contents1 History 2 Products 3 Collections 3.1 Handbags 3.2 Accessories 3.3 Travel 3.4 Microfiber 3.5 Stationery 3.6 Limited editions 4 The Vera Bradley Foundation 5 References 6 External links // HistoryThe company was founded in March 1982 by Patricia Miller and Barbara Bradley Baekgaard, a 1962 graduate of Marymount College. Named after Baekgaard's mother, the company got its start when both were inspired while awaiting a flight in Atlanta, where they noticed a "definite lack of feminine-looking luggage".[3]ProductsA Peacock-patterned Vera Bradley bag.Vera Bradley bags come in several sizes and styles, as well as many different patterns and colors. There are travel duffels, totes, purses, wallets, eyeglass and sunglass cases, cosmetic cases, and jewelry cases. There are also umbrellas, napkins, placemats, rolling luggage, tableware, rugs, accessories, and stationery.Periodically, the company will retire a pattern. When patterns retire, new ones are produced. New patterns are released four times per year: spring, summer, fall, and winter.CollectionsAll collections are available in a variety of colors and patterns.HandbagsVera Bradley makes several different types of handbags. Some names include the Amy, the Hipster, the Tote, the Morgan, the Hannah, the Betsy, and the Villager. The handbags are made out of quilted cotton and are released in a variety of patterns.AccessoriesVera Bradley makes coordinating accessories. The accessories are available in all of the Signature Cotton patterns, except for the Mosaic pattern which only comes in limited accessories and handbags. There is also a line of flip-flops, sunglasses and beach towels.TravelThe Vera Bradley Travel Collection includes Classic Cotton duffel/travel bags (made from the same fabric as the traditional handbags and accessories), as well as rolling luggage.MicrofiberAlong with the Signature Cotton collection, Vera Bradley releases a Microfiber line during the same period new patterns are released. Microfiber lines are released twice a year, each time with different style bags, detail stitching, and inside prints. The company has released brown and black Microfiber pieces; most recently, they created a black line for the Spring 09 collection that involved Electric Blue and Charcoal stitching.StationeryThe stationery collection includes pencils, notepads, binders, notebooks and stationery cards. All of the products are in the Vera Bradley classic cotton patterns.Limited editionsVera Bradley has also come out with a variety limited edition accessories. Some of the limited editions include the pet collection, the Seaside Collection, the Tropical Silk Collection, the Jacquard Line, and the 25th Anniversary Collection.The Vera Bradley FoundationThe Vera Bradley Foundation supports Breast Cancer Research. Sales from the Pink Elephants (retired), Pinwheel Pink, and Hope Garden prints benefit the organization.References^ a b c d Wellington, Elizabeth (August 23, 2007). "Vera Bradley bags: Blooming hot". The Philadelphia Inquirer. pp.E01. ^ Heher, Ashley (April 24, 2006), Younger Buyers Fuel Vera Bradley's Growth, The Washington Post, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/24/AR2006042400717.html, retrieved on 2008-02-17 ^ "Company Information". http://www.verabradley.com/Site/Company/OurCompany.aspx. Retrieved on 2007-08-09. External linksVera Bradley official site Vera Bradley Foundation for Breast Cancer Designer on the Rise: Vera Bradley by Teen Scene Magazine Categories: Clothing companies of the United States Companies based in Fort Wayne, Indiana Companies established in 1982 2000s fashion
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Cuprom
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CupromTypePrivateFounded2003HeadquartersBucharest, RomaniaKey peopleHoria Pitulea, CEOHoria Simu, CEOMircea Stroe, CEOIndustryCopperProductsCopper products, Copper wires, Copper barsRevenueUS$380 million (2007)Employees700 (2006)Websitehttp://www.cuprom.ro/Cuprom is the sole producer of electrolytic copper, continuous cast copper rod and enameled wire in Romania and the largest in Eastern Europe (outside Russia).Cuprom refinery in Baia Mare has an annual production capacity of 40,000 tonnes of cathodes.Cuprom plant in Zal?u, using Contirod technology, is one of the leading European wire rod producers with an annual production capacity of 70,000 tonnes of copper rod, also producing drawn, enameled and stranded (bunched) wires at the highest technological level.Contents1 Divisions 2 Cuprom Baia Mare 3 Cuprom Zal?u 4 Ownership 5 Controversy 6 External links // DivisionsCuprom Baia MareCuprom Baia Mare was set up in the year 1907 in Ferneziu, near Baia Mare, as a private company producing sulphuric acid. It is recognised as a unique producer in Romania of electrolytically refined copper (99.99% Cu), having a production capacity of 40,000 tones/year and of fine gold and silver respectively (min. 99.96% Au/Ag), having a production capacity of 12 tonnes/year for gold, respectively 120 tonnes/year for silver.Cuprom Zal?uIn Romania, Cuprom Zal?u is the sole producer of continuous cast copper wire with an annual nominal production of 73,000 tones/year.OwnershipMost of the Romanian copper industry was in collapse when in 2003 a group of Romanian investors two bankers (Horia Pitulea and Horia Simu) and a lawyer (Mircea Stroe) decided to buy everything.They formed Cuprom (Romanian copper) and with this company they bought Phoenix Baia Mare and Elcond Zalau for a meager US$3.6 million .The company also wants to buy two Romanian copper mines to have the raw material for the copper smelters, and there are talks with the Romanian government for two mines and an investment plan of US$370 million for both of them.ControversyIn 2006 Cuprom won the bid for Serbian company RTB Bor with a total price of US$400 million and certain investments of US$150 million but due to Cuproms inability to pay the asking price of US$400 million for RTB Bor, the Serbian government annexed the privatization. In November 2007, RTB Bor was sold to Austrian A Tech for an even greater price of US$466 million, with a further US$273 million in investments, who in the end could not pay the price as well.External linksCopper bankers Cuprom makes largest bid for Serbian company RTB Bor Cuprom invests US$ 150 million in two Romanian mines Categories: Copper mining companies Mining companies Mining companies of Romania Companies of Romania
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CupromTypePrivateFounded2003HeadquartersBucharest, RomaniaKey peopleHoria Pitulea, CEOHoria Simu, CEOMircea Stroe, CEOIndustryCopperProductsCopper products, Copper wires, Copper barsRevenueUS$380 million (2007)Employees700 (2006)Websitehttp://www.cuprom.ro/Cuprom is the sole producer of electrolytic copper, continuous cast copper rod and enameled wire in Romania and the largest in Eastern Europe (outside Russia).Cuprom refinery in Baia Mare has an annual production capacity of 40,000 tonnes of cathodes.Cuprom plant in Zal?u, using Contirod technology, is one of the leading European wire rod producers with an annual production capacity of 70,000 tonnes of copper rod, also producing drawn, enameled and stranded (bunched) wires at the highest technological level.Contents1 Divisions 2 Cuprom Baia Mare 3 Cuprom Zal?u 4 Ownership 5 Controversy 6 External links // DivisionsCuprom Baia MareCuprom Baia Mare was set up in the year 1907 in Ferneziu, near Baia Mare, as a private company producing sulphuric acid. It is recognised as a unique producer in Romania of electrolytically refined copper (99.99% Cu), having a production capacity of 40,000 tones/year and of fine gold and silver respectively (min. 99.96% Au/Ag), having a production capacity of 12 tonnes/year for gold, respectively 120 tonnes/year for silver.Cuprom Zal?uIn Romania, Cuprom Zal?u is the sole producer of continuous cast copper wire with an annual nominal production of 73,000 tones/year.OwnershipMost of the Romanian copper industry was in collapse when in 2003 a group of Romanian investors two bankers (Horia Pitulea and Horia Simu) and a lawyer (Mircea Stroe) decided to buy everything.They formed Cuprom (Romanian copper) and with this company they bought Phoenix Baia Mare and Elcond Zalau for a meager US$3.6 million .The company also wants to buy two Romanian copper mines to have the raw material for the copper smelters, and there are talks with the Romanian government for two mines and an investment plan of US$370 million for both of them.ControversyIn 2006 Cuprom won the bid for Serbian company RTB Bor with a total price of US$400 million and certain investments of US$150 million but due to Cuproms inability to pay the asking price of US$400 million for RTB Bor, the Serbian government annexed the privatization. In November 2007, RTB Bor was sold to Austrian A Tech for an even greater price of US$466 million, with a further US$273 million in investments, who in the end could not pay the price as well.External linksCopper bankers Cuprom makes largest bid for Serbian company RTB Bor Cuprom invests US$ 150 million in two Romanian mines Categories: Copper mining companies Mining companies Mining companies of Romania Companies of Romania
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Mining in the United Kingdom
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Iron Ore ( Magnetite )Iron ore ( Magnetite )Report of chemical characterization of magnetiteFe 49%AL 0.58%SI 1.61%P 0.44%Ca 4.70%Mg 3.27%Ti 0.38%Mn...
Mining in the United Kingdom produces a wide variety of mineral fuels, metals, and industrial minerals. In 2006, there were over 2200 active mines, quarries, and offshore drilling sites on the continental land mass of the United Kingdom [1].Contents1 Brief History 2 Mineral Fuels 2.1 Natural Gas 2.2 Oil 2.3 Coal 3 Metals 4 Industrial Minerals 5 References // Brief HistoryThe United Kingdom has a rich history of mining. There is evidence that mining took place in Wales during the Bronze Age, in approximately 2200-850 BC[2]. Metalworking debris found beneath the ramparts at Beeston Castle located in Beeston, Cheshire, England is evidence of bronze production during the Bronze Age[3].Later, lead and copper attracted the Romans to Britain, and in the 15th century they erected a lead smelter at Flint in northern Wales [4]. The Romans introduced iron tools and used local slaves to mine galena, an important lead ore mineral, from which they refined lead, tin, and silver. These metals were used locally and also transported by ship throughout the Roman Empire. Galena was mined from deep mines located in Scotland and Wales. Lead, tin, and aluminum were then refined from galena.The widespread availability of coal and iron was a significant factor in Europe鎶?Industrial Revolution of the late 1700鎶?and early 1800鎶? Although coal and iron ore is no longer mined in significant quantities in the United Kingdom, it was once mined in large quantities throughout the United Kingdom and utilized for steel and energy production. With large quantities of important minerals available and easily accessible, the United Kingdom鎶?economy grew rapidly.Mineral FuelsThe United Kingdom still has large reserves of available mineral fuels. Natural gas, oil, and coal are all mined in large quantities in the United Kingdom. Coal is mined from many areas in the United Kingdom from both deep mines and surface mines. In addition to the coal being mined on land, large reserves of oil and natural gas are being tapped in the North Sea.Natural GasThe United Kingdom is the fourth largest producer of natural gas in the world, after Russia, the United States, and Canada. Natural gas reserves are concentrated in the following three areas: 1) associated fields in the United Kingdom Continental Shelf; 2) non-associated fields in the Southern Gas Basin, located adjacent to the Dutch sector of the North Sea; and 3) non-associated fields in the Irish Sea[5].OilThe United Kingdom has an estimated 780 million tonnes of proved and probable oil reserves; most of these oil reserves are located on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf in the North Sea off the eastern coast of the United Kingdom. There are also sizable reserves in the North Sea north of the Shetland Islands, with smaller fields in the North Atlantic. Located in Dorset, the Wytch Farm field is the largest onshore oilfield in Europe[6] with estimated recoverable reserves of 480 million barrels of crude oil [5].CoalIn 2007, 16,309,730 tonnes of coal were produced in the United Kingdom [7]. In the United Kingdom coal is mined from both deep mines and surface mines: The majority of coal produced in England comes from underground mines, in Scotland most coal is mined from open-pit mines.UK Coal is the United Kingdom鎶?largest coal mining company, producing approximately 8.7 million tonnes of coal annually from deep mines and surface mines, and possesses estimated reserves in excess of 200 million tonnes of coal[8]. Total proved coal reserves in the United Kingdom are estimated at 220 million tonnes, although possible reserves could exceed 1 billion tonnes[9].MetalsMetal production in the United Kingdom has decreased over the past century. Iron and copper are no longer mined in significant quantities in the United Kingdom due to the effects of globalization. Copper from Chile and North America, and iron ore from China and Brazil are higher grades of metals at lower costs, lowering demand from the United Kingdom鎶?copper and iron ore mines. Although large reserves of iron ore and copper are found in the United Kingdom, copper and iron ore are now largely imported from other countries[10].Tin and lead is still being mined from deep mines located in Scotland, Britain, and Wales. Silver is also mined in small quantities from deep mines and separated from lead ore. The United Kingdom has a large variety of important metals, but little metal is currently being mined in the United Kingdom.Industrial MineralsMany types of industrial minerals are found in the United Kingdom. The most common industrial minerals are sand, gravel, and cement used in construction products and road building. With 80 quarries, Tarmac is the United Kingdom鎶?largest producer of crushed rock, sand, and gravel [11].There are many slate mines in the United Kingdom producing slate that is used for building and architectural purposes. The largest slate mine is the Delabole Slate Mine, located on the North Coast of Cornwall near Delabole[12]. Slate quarries are located throughout Britain, Scotland, and Wales.The United Kingdom also has an abundance of specialized minerals such as China clay, used in fine china and porcelain, and Fuller鎶?earth, an absorbent mineral used for spill containment and cleaning supplies.References^ "United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook". http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/commodity/uk/ukmy.html. ^ "GENERAL HISTORY OF WELSH MINING". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~lizcolin/w_gen.htm. ^ "The later Bronze Age and Iron Age in western Cheshire". http://www.kmatthews.org/archaeology/cheshire/baia.php. ^ "Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust - Projects - Longer reports - Ports and Harbours". http://www.cpat.org.uk/projects/longer/ports/ports.htm. ^ a b "www.eia.doe.gov". http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/United_Kingdom/NaturalGas.html. ^ "BP NSI Wytch Farm". http://www.bpnsi.com/index.asp?id=7369643D312669643D313531. ^ "The Coal Authority, Licensing Home Page". http://www.coal.gov.uk/services/licensingindemnities/index.cfm. ^ "UK COAL: Britain's largest coal mining company - Company Information". http://www.ukcoal.com/company-information. ^ "World Coal Institute - UK". http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=404. ^ "EuroInvestor.co.uk - London Mining - Strategic expansion - Iron Ore Joint Venture in China". http://www.euroinvestor.co.uk/News/ShowNewsStory.aspx?StoryID=10110005. ^ "Tarmac at a glance". http://www.tarmac.co.uk/Tarmacataglance.aspx. ^ "Slate Mining In Cornwall". http://www.cornwall-calling.co.uk/mines/slate/slate-mining-cornwall.htm. Categories: Mining in the United Kingdom
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Mining in the United Kingdom produces a wide variety of mineral fuels, metals, and industrial minerals. In 2006, there were over 2200 active mines, quarries, and offshore drilling sites on the continental land mass of the United Kingdom [1].Contents1 Brief History 2 Mineral Fuels 2.1 Natural Gas 2.2 Oil 2.3 Coal 3 Metals 4 Industrial Minerals 5 References // Brief HistoryThe United Kingdom has a rich history of mining. There is evidence that mining took place in Wales during the Bronze Age, in approximately 2200-850 BC[2]. Metalworking debris found beneath the ramparts at Beeston Castle located in Beeston, Cheshire, England is evidence of bronze production during the Bronze Age[3].Later, lead and copper attracted the Romans to Britain, and in the 15th century they erected a lead smelter at Flint in northern Wales [4]. The Romans introduced iron tools and used local slaves to mine galena, an important lead ore mineral, from which they refined lead, tin, and silver. These metals were used locally and also transported by ship throughout the Roman Empire. Galena was mined from deep mines located in Scotland and Wales. Lead, tin, and aluminum were then refined from galena.The widespread availability of coal and iron was a significant factor in Europe鎶?Industrial Revolution of the late 1700鎶?and early 1800鎶? Although coal and iron ore is no longer mined in significant quantities in the United Kingdom, it was once mined in large quantities throughout the United Kingdom and utilized for steel and energy production. With large quantities of important minerals available and easily accessible, the United Kingdom鎶?economy grew rapidly.Mineral FuelsThe United Kingdom still has large reserves of available mineral fuels. Natural gas, oil, and coal are all mined in large quantities in the United Kingdom. Coal is mined from many areas in the United Kingdom from both deep mines and surface mines. In addition to the coal being mined on land, large reserves of oil and natural gas are being tapped in the North Sea.Natural GasThe United Kingdom is the fourth largest producer of natural gas in the world, after Russia, the United States, and Canada. Natural gas reserves are concentrated in the following three areas: 1) associated fields in the United Kingdom Continental Shelf; 2) non-associated fields in the Southern Gas Basin, located adjacent to the Dutch sector of the North Sea; and 3) non-associated fields in the Irish Sea[5].OilThe United Kingdom has an estimated 780 million tonnes of proved and probable oil reserves; most of these oil reserves are located on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf in the North Sea off the eastern coast of the United Kingdom. There are also sizable reserves in the North Sea north of the Shetland Islands, with smaller fields in the North Atlantic. Located in Dorset, the Wytch Farm field is the largest onshore oilfield in Europe[6] with estimated recoverable reserves of 480 million barrels of crude oil [5].CoalIn 2007, 16,309,730 tonnes of coal were produced in the United Kingdom [7]. In the United Kingdom coal is mined from both deep mines and surface mines: The majority of coal produced in England comes from underground mines, in Scotland most coal is mined from open-pit mines.UK Coal is the United Kingdom鎶?largest coal mining company, producing approximately 8.7 million tonnes of coal annually from deep mines and surface mines, and possesses estimated reserves in excess of 200 million tonnes of coal[8]. Total proved coal reserves in the United Kingdom are estimated at 220 million tonnes, although possible reserves could exceed 1 billion tonnes[9].MetalsMetal production in the United Kingdom has decreased over the past century. Iron and copper are no longer mined in significant quantities in the United Kingdom due to the effects of globalization. Copper from Chile and North America, and iron ore from China and Brazil are higher grades of metals at lower costs, lowering demand from the United Kingdom鎶?copper and iron ore mines. Although large reserves of iron ore and copper are found in the United Kingdom, copper and iron ore are now largely imported from other countries[10].Tin and lead is still being mined from deep mines located in Scotland, Britain, and Wales. Silver is also mined in small quantities from deep mines and separated from lead ore. The United Kingdom has a large variety of important metals, but little metal is currently being mined in the United Kingdom.Industrial MineralsMany types of industrial minerals are found in the United Kingdom. The most common industrial minerals are sand, gravel, and cement used in construction products and road building. With 80 quarries, Tarmac is the United Kingdom鎶?largest producer of crushed rock, sand, and gravel [11].There are many slate mines in the United Kingdom producing slate that is used for building and architectural purposes. The largest slate mine is the Delabole Slate Mine, located on the North Coast of Cornwall near Delabole[12]. Slate quarries are located throughout Britain, Scotland, and Wales.The United Kingdom also has an abundance of specialized minerals such as China clay, used in fine china and porcelain, and Fuller鎶?earth, an absorbent mineral used for spill containment and cleaning supplies.References^ "United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook". http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/commodity/uk/ukmy.html. ^ "GENERAL HISTORY OF WELSH MINING". http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~lizcolin/w_gen.htm. ^ "The later Bronze Age and Iron Age in western Cheshire". http://www.kmatthews.org/archaeology/cheshire/baia.php. ^ "Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust - Projects - Longer reports - Ports and Harbours". http://www.cpat.org.uk/projects/longer/ports/ports.htm. ^ a b "www.eia.doe.gov". http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/United_Kingdom/NaturalGas.html. ^ "BP NSI Wytch Farm". http://www.bpnsi.com/index.asp?id=7369643D312669643D313531. ^ "The Coal Authority, Licensing Home Page". http://www.coal.gov.uk/services/licensingindemnities/index.cfm. ^ "UK COAL: Britain's largest coal mining company - Company Information". http://www.ukcoal.com/company-information. ^ "World Coal Institute - UK". http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=404. ^ "EuroInvestor.co.uk - London Mining - Strategic expansion - Iron Ore Joint Venture in China". http://www.euroinvestor.co.uk/News/ShowNewsStory.aspx?StoryID=10110005. ^ "Tarmac at a glance". http://www.tarmac.co.uk/Tarmacataglance.aspx. ^ "Slate Mining In Cornwall". http://www.cornwall-calling.co.uk/mines/slate/slate-mining-cornwall.htm. Categories: Mining in the United Kingdom
These info's feature products include:
Non-Metallic Mineral Products98, 5% 0, 25 55, 20 0, 43 0, 03 0, 03 42, 40 Non-Metallic Mineral Produc
il sole 24 ore cheap wood pellets platinum group metals Iron Ore Fine bbq wood pellets vitamin and mineral Liquid Colloidal Minerals Rocks and Minerals 150w metal halide Wood Fuel Pellets first quantum minerals iron ore magnetite alloy wheel chrome magnetite iron ore double ended metal halide chromite ore copper ore Bean Bag Pellets Make Wood Pellets briquettes and pellets Dead Sea Minerals Iron Ore Pellet iron ore mineral chrome concentrate crab meat jumbo lump ferro silicon manganese india iron ore Iron Ores Iron Ore Pellets Lead Metal Non Metallic Minerals Auto Chrome double ended metal halide magnetite iron ore alloy wheel chrome iron ore magnetite indonesian bauxite first quantum minerals Wood Fuel Pellets 150w metal halide Rocks and Minerals Liquid Colloidal Minerals vitamin and mineral bbq wood pellets Chrome Ore Iron Ore Fine
Commodore 128
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This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (November 2008)Commodore 128TypeHome computerRelease date1985Discontinued1989Operating systemMicrosoft BASIC 7.0Digital Research CP/M 3.0CPUMOS Tech. 8502 @ 2 MHzZilog Z80A @ 4 MHzMemory128KBThe Commodore 128 (C128, CBM 128, C=128) home/personal computer was the last 8-bit machine commercially released by Commodore Business Machines (CBM). Introduced in January of 1985 at the CES in Las Vegas, it appeared three years after its predecessor, the bestselling Commodore 64. The primary hardware designer of the C128 was Bil Herd.Contents1 Technical overview 1.1 C128 Mode 1.2 CP/M Mode 1.3 C64 Mode 1.4 RAM setup 2 Commodore 128D 3 Market performance 4 C128's hidden features 5 Specifications 6 External links 7 References // Technical overviewOriginal Commodore 128 boxThe C128 was a significantly expanded successor to the C64 and unlike the earlier Plus/4 it remained compatible. The new machine featured 128KB of RAM (externally expandable to 640 KB) and an 80-column RGB monitor output (driven by the 8563 VDC chip with 16KB dedicated video RAM, although following the release of the 128D later "flat" 128s had 64KB of VRAM), as well as a redesigned case/keyboard with a numeric keypad. The 128's power supply was vastly improved over the 64's troublesome design. It was much larger, with cooling vents and a fuse to protect it from blowing up. Instead of the 6510 CPU of the C64, the C128 incorporated a two-CPU design. The primary CPU, the 8502, was a slightly improved version of the 6510; its main addition was the ability to run at a 2MHz clock rate (being quite beneficial to the 80 column display, but making it difficult to display a second signal to a second monitor, such as that used for a 40 column display). The second CPU was a Zilog Z80 which was used for ensuring CP/M compatibility and for mode-selection of the computer upon boot-up. The two processors could not run concurrently, thus the C128 was not a multiprocessing system.The C128 had three modes of operation: C128 Mode (native mode), which ran at 1 or 2MHz with the 8502 CPU and had both 40- and 80-column text modes available; CP/M Mode, which used the Z80 second CPU in either 40- or 80-column text mode; and C64 Mode, which was very nearly 100% compatible with the earlier computer. None of these modes would have been possible as implemented on the C128 without the Z80 chip. The Z80 controls the bus on initial boot-up and checks to see if there are any C64/C128 cartridges present, and if the Commodore key (C64-mode selector) is active on boot-up. Based on what it finds, it will switch to the appropriate mode of operation.Some 128s suffered from a reliability problem caused by the electromagnetic shield over the internal board. The shield had fingers that rested on the top of the major chips to conduct heat into the shield which then acted as a large heatsink. A combination of poor contact and the fact that plastic encased chips do not lose heat that way plus the shield being made from mu-metal (a poor heat conductor) saw some chips overheat and fail. The SID sound chip was particularly vulnerable in this respect as it operated from a 9 volt supply. The situation could be vastly improved by removing the shield completely.C128 ModeC128 Main boardWhile the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were generally considered excellent, the popular home computer was the subject of a number of perennial criticisms. The 40-column VIC-II video display, while excellent for gaming, was often considered inadequate for productivity applications such as word processing. The lack of a numeric keypad was also an issue with some office suite software. Furthermore, the 2.0 revision of Commodore BASIC that was incorporated into the C64 was quite limited, and lacked keywords to handle the system's graphical and sound capabilities. These features had to be accessed via cumbersome PEEK and POKE commands, or by custom-written machine language routines. Also criticized was the lack of a hardware reset button, an essential device when developing assembly language routines. Finally, the C64's 1541 disk drive was almost universally condemned as slow and unreliable.The designers of the C128 succeeded in rectifying most of these concerns. A new chip, the VDC, provided the C128 with an 80-column color CGA-compatible display (also called RGBI for RGB plus Intensity). The new 8502 CPU was completely backward-compatible with the C64's 6510, but could run at double the speed if desired. However, the VIC-II chip which controlled the 40-column display could not operate at the faster clock rate, so the 40 column display is not available in Fast mode. A numeric keypad was added to the keyboard, as were various other keys. The C64's rudimentary BASIC 2.0 was replaced with the far more flexible and powerful BASIC 7.0, which included keywords designed specifically to take advantage of the machine's capabilities, and also incorporated a sprite editor and machine language monitor. The screen editor was further improved. A reset button was added to the system.Three new disk drives were introduced in conjunction with the C128, the 1570, 1571, and 3.5 inch 1581 drives promising far faster transfer speeds via a new "burst mode". With these three drives, more complex drive data arrangements were also made available to Commodore users in the nature of "track and sector" oriented subdirectories, a feature not available to PC users, who instead had to convolute their file allocation tables to do the same thing. The disk drives also had more on-board RAM than their predecessors, the 1540 and 1541 drives.The C128 also had twice the RAM of the C64, and a far higher proportion was available for BASIC programming, due to the new MMU bankswitching chip. This feature made it possible for BASIC program code to be stored separately from variables, greatly enhancing the machine's ability to handle complex programs.The C128's greater hardware capabilities, especially the increased RAM, screen display resolution, and serial bus speed, made it the preferred platform for running the GEOS graphical operating system.CP/M ModeThe second of the C128's two CPUs was the Zilog Z80, which allowed the C128 to run CP/M; the machine came with CP/M 3.0, aka CP/M Plus (backward compatible with CP/M 2.2) and ADM31/3A terminal emulation. To make a large application software library instantly available at launch, the Commodore 128 CP/M and accompanying 1571 floppy disk drive was designed to run almost all Kaypro-specific CP/M software without modification.Unfortunately, the C128 ran CP/M noticeably slower than most dedicated CP/M systems, as the Z80 processor ran at an effective speed of only 2MHz (instead of the more common 46MHz) and because it used CP/M 3.0, whose complexity made it inherently slower than the earlier, more widespread, CP/M 2.2 system. From the source code of the C128 CP/M implementation, it is clear that the engineers originally planned to make it possible to run CP/M in the "fast" mode as well, with the 40-column output turned off and the Z80 running at an effective 4MHz; however, this did not work on the released C128 hardware.A possibly unique feature of the C128 among CP/M systems was that some of the low-level BIOS services were executed by the 8502 chip instead of the Z80. The latter transferred control to the 8502 after having placed the pertinent parameter values in designated memory locations. The Z80 then turned itself off, being awoken by the 8502 at completion of the BIOS routine, with status value(s) available in RAM for inspection.C64 ModeBy incorporating the original C64 BASIC and KERNAL ROMs in their entirety (16 KB total), the C128 achieves almost 100% compatibility with C64 software. The C64 mode can be accessed in one of three ways:Hold down the Commodore logo key when booting the system Enter the GO 64 command in BASIC 7.0 immediate mode Boot with a C64 cartridge plugged in Some of the few C64 programs that fail on a C128 run correctly when the CAPS LOCK key is pressed down (or the ASCII/National key on international C128 models). This has to do with the larger built-in I/O port of the C128's CPU. Whereas the SHIFT LOCK key found on both C64 and C128 is simply a mechanical latch for the left SHIFT key, the CAPS LOCK key on the C128 can be read via the 8502's built-in I/O port. A few C64 programs are confused by this extra I/O bit; keeping the CAPS LOCK key in the down position will force the I/O line low, matching the C64's configuration and resolving the issue.A handful of C64 programs wrote to $D030 (53296), often as part of a loop initializing the VIC-II chip registers. This memory-mapped register, unused in the C64, operated as a selector for 2 MHz mode in the C128. Since it was not disabled in C64 mode, an inadvertent write could blank the 40-column display by putting the CPU into fast mode. Fortunately, very few programs suffered from this flaw. In July 1986, COMPUTE!'s Gazette published a type-in program that exploited this minor incompatibility, by using a raster interrupt to enable fast mode when the bottom of the visible screen was reached, and then disable it when screen rendering began again at the top. By using fast mode during the vertical blank period, standard video display was maintained while increasing overall execution speed by about 20%. [1] [2]An easy way to tell the C128's C64 mode and a real C64 apart, typically used from within a running program, is to write a value different from $FF (255) to memory address $D02F (53295), which is used to decode the extra keys of the C128 (the numerical keypad and some other keys). On the 64 this memory location will always contain the value $FF no matter what was written to it, but on a C128 in 64 mode the value of the location姊?memory-mapped register姊抋n be changed. Thus, checking the location's value after writing to it will reveal the actual hardware platform.RAM setupTo handle the relatively large amounts of installable RAM, tenfold the 8502's 64 KB address space, the C128 used the 8722 MMU chip to create different memory maps, in which different combinations of RAM and ROM would appear according to bit patterns written into the MMU's confguration register. While the MMU was designed to handle more than 128 KB, the versions that were actually produced and used in the C128 cannot do so.Although referred to as RAM expanders, Commodore's RAM Expansion Units were not expansion devices at all, as they utilized an external DMA controller to copy bytes between the C-128's RAM and the RAM in the "expansion unit." This function was essentially independent of the MMU's memory control features.Commodore 128DA Commodore 128DThe Commodore 128D was released in the fall of 1985 in Europe. The US release date was in the summer of 1986. It was an updated version of the C128 with a detached keyboard and a 1571 disk drive in the same box as the main system unit, providing a sleeker, more professional-looking appearance, much like that of a desktop PC. In Europe the first C128Ds came in a plastic case with a side-mounted carrying handle and were technically exactly the same as a C128 with the 1571 disk drive. Additionally these models were equipped with a somewhat noisy cooling fan, leading to the model sometimes being referred to as the "128 Diesel".Later models of the C128D came in a metal case; among these were the Commodore 128DCR (CR = cost reduced), which was widely sold in Canada and the USA. These later models had some minor improvements. The internal design was more integrated to save production costs, but also improved the thermal design, so that a fan was supposedly not needed anymore (later experience proved that the fan was a worthwhile addition and many C128Ds were so modified).Inside, the C128D ROMs contained several bug fixes, and the 8563 VDC chip (in the C128DCR, the 8568) was equipped with the maximum capacity 64 KB of video RAM four times that of the original C128. This permitted the C128D to do higher-resolution graphics with more colors in RGB mode, although very little software took advantage of this. With or without the extra RAM, the VDC's high-resolution graphics modes were inaccessible from the C128's BASIC. They could only be utilized by calls to screen editor ROM primitives (or their assembly language equivalents), or via third-party BASIC language extensions. The most popular such toolkit was Free Spirit Software's "BASIC 8", which added high-resolution VDC graphics commands to CBM BASIC. BASIC 8 was available on two disks (editor disk and runtime disk) and with a ROM chip for installation in the C128's internal Function ROM socket.Market performanceThe system architecture of the C128, which in case of a C128D with memory expansion included three CPUs, five types of RAM memory, three operating modes, two system speeds, two graphics chips and two completely different low-level floppy disk encoding schemes was positively baroque and not at all orthogonal. This high complexity was probably a factor in the limited success of the C128姊憉t of course also much of the reason for the machine's popularity among long-time CBM users and 'hackers', who enjoyed the capability of full C64 compatibility in a computer which was also fully usable as a BBS terminal and general office application platform in 80-column mode running native or CP/M programs. Another selling point for this group of users was the full-featured business keyboard, which was the first 'real' keyboard of a CBM computer since the less flexible (and thence, less popular) CBM-II/B series.Because the C128 would run virtually all C64 software, and because the next-generation, 32/16-bit home computers, primarily the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST, were gaining ground, relatively little software for the C128's native mode appeared (probably on the order of 100200 fully commercial titles, plus the usual share of public domain and magazine type-in programs). While the C128 sold a total number of 4million units between 1985 and 1989, its popularity paled in comparison to that of its predecessor. This has been blamed on the lack of native software and on Commodore's less-aggressive marketing, which was mostly focused on the Amiga. An additional explanation may be found in the fact that the C64 sold huge numbers to people primarily interested in computer games, which the more expensive C128 didn't add much value towards improving (with the exception of a few Infocom text adventures). The C128 was certainly a better business machine than the C64, but not really a better gaming machine, and people who wanted business machines bought IBM PC clones almost exclusively by the time the C128 was released. With its advanced BASIC programming language, CP/M compatibility and "user-friendly" native software packages such as Jane, Commodore attempted to create a low-end business market for the 128, branding it a "Personal Computer" on the case, but this strategy was not successful in the face of low-cost IBM-compatibles like the Leading Edge Model D and Tandy 1000 that, in some cases, sold for less than a complete 128 system. There was a professional-level CAD program, Home Designer by BRiWALL, but again, most of this work was done on PCs by the 128s era. The main reason that the C128 still sold fairly well was probably that it was a much better machine for hobbyist programming than the C64.Also, when the C128(D/DCR) was discontinued in 1989, it was reported to cost nearly as much to manufacture as the 16-bit Amiga 500, even though the C128D had to sell for several hundred dollars less to keep the Amiga's high-value marketing image intact.Bil Herd commented on the Wikipedia C128 article, stating: "We considered the C128 to be a holding action until the next generation computers arrived, we were trying to up the game as far as expectations for new machines and buy a year, two at the max in the process. In that we exceeded our initial goals but probably due in part to Commodore's lackluster follow through on marketing and selling the Amiga."[citation needed]C128's hidden featuresThe 40 column version of the C128 Easter egg screen, with a listing of, and a message from, the machine's main developers. Notice the term "herdware", named after Bil Herd.Easter egg: Entering the command "SYS 32800,123,45,6" in native mode reveals the 40-column screen shown to the right: The Commodore 128's BASIC 7.0, the programming language which comes built-in with the computer, can be crashed or cause the computer to reboot by executing PRINT""+-X (where X is any integer), depending on the number entered for X. This bug is present in all known versions of Microsoft's 6502 BASIC interpreter, including the BASIC of all other 8-bit Commodore machines, as well as Applesoft BASIC. Entering the keywords QUIT or OFF will produce an "?UNIMPLEMENTED COMMAND ERROR". These commands are holdovers from a planned but never produced LCD-display portable computer and were intended to exit from the BASIC interpreter and to ignore keyboard input during sensitive program execution, respectively. The earlier ROM revision of the C128 includes a rather obvious bug. When in "CAPS LOCK" mode, each of the alphabetic keys type properly in upper-case except the "q", which remains lower-case. Multiple zero page and CPU stack locations can be defined by twiddling some bits in the C128's MMU, which theoretically would make multitasking a possibility. In practice, the lack of hardware memory protection would create a difficult-to-manage environment in which to run a preemptive kernel. Grounding the cartridge port's /EXROM and/or /GAME lines will cause the computer to automatically start up in C64 mode. This design faithfully duplicates the C64 behavior when a cartridge (such as Simons' BASIC) is plugged into the port and asserts either of these lines. C128 mode cartridges are recognized and started by the kernal polling defined locations in the memory map. SpecificationsCPUs: MOS Technology 8502 @ 2 MHz (1 MHz selectable for C64 compatibility mode) Zilog Z80@ 4 MHz (effectively running at 2 MHz due to stopping half the time to allow VIC-II video chip access to system bus) MMU: Memory Management Unit controls 8502/Z80 processor selection; ROM/RAM banking; common RAM areas; relocation of zero page and stack RAM: 128 KB system RAM, 2 KB 4-bit dedicated color RAM (for the VIC-II E), 16 KB or 64 KB dedicated video RAM (for the VDC), up to 512 KB REU expansion RAM ROM: 72 KB (28 KB BASIC 7.0, 4 KB MLM, 8 KB C128 KERNAL, 4 KB screen editor, 4 KB Z80 BIOS, ca. 9 KB C64 BASIC 2.0, ca. 7 KB C64 KERNAL, 4 KB C64 (or international) character generator, 4 KB C128 (or national) character generator) expandable by 32 KB Internal Function ROM (optional; for placement in motherboard socket) and/or 32KB External Function ROM (optional; for placement in REU socket) Video: MOS 8564/8566 VIC-II E (NTSC/PAL) for 40-column composite video (a TV set can be used instead of a monitor if desired) Direct register access through memory-mapped I/O Text mode: 4025, 16 colors Graphics modes: 160200, 320200 8 hardware sprites 2 KB dedicated 4-bit color RAM, otherwise uses main memory as video RAM MOS 8563 VDC (or, in C128DCR, the 8568) for 80-column digital RGBI component video, compatible with IBM PC CGA monitors, monochrome display also possible on composite video monitors; usable with TV sets only when the set has SCART and/or baseband video-in sockets in addition to the antenna connector. Color is possible through SCART, only monochrome through baseband video-in. Indirect register access (address register, data register in mapped memory) Text mode: Fully programmable, typically 8025 or 80x50, 16 colors (not the same as those of the VIC-II) Graphics modes: Fully programmable, typical modes are 320x200, 640200, and 640400 (interlaced). No hardware sprites 16 KB dedicated video RAM (64 KB standard in C128DCR, C128/C128D was upgradable to 64 KB), accessible to the CPU only in a doubly indirect method (address register, data register on VDC, which in turn are addressed through address register, data register in mapped memory) limited blitter functionality helps to alleviate this RAM bottleneck Sound: MOS 6581 SID (or, in the C128DCR, the MOS 8580 SID) synthesizer chip 3 voices, ADSR-controllable Standard SID waveforms (triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise, and certain combined modes) Multi-mode filter 3 ring modulators Cost-reduced and noise-reduced version of C64's MOS 6581; some early C128s actually have 6581s I/O Ports: All the ports of C64 100% compatible plus the following: Higher speed possible on the serial bus Expansion port more flexibly programmable RGBI video output (DB9-connector, logically similar to the IBM PC CGA connector, but with an added monochrome composite signal. This added signal causes a minor incompatibility with certain CGA monitors that can be rectified by breaking off pin 7 from the plug at one end of the connecting cable.) External linksCommodore 128 Systems Guide VICE: Versatile Commodore Emulator Commodore128 Alive! ReferencesGreenley, Larry, et al. (1986). Commodore 128 Programmer's Reference Guide. Bantam Computer Books/Commodore Publications. ISBN 0-553-34378-5. Gerits, K.; Schieb, J.; Thrun, F. (1986). Commodore 128 Internals. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Abacus Software, Inc. ISBN 0916439429. Original German edition (1985), D榛秙eldorf, West Germany: DATA BECKER GmbH & Co. KG. v?d?eList of Commodore microcomputers6502-based (8-bit)MOS/CBM KIM-1 PET/CBM CBM-II (aka B/P series) VIC-20/VC-20 C64 SX-64 Educator 64 C16 & 116 Plus/4 C12868000-based (16-bit / 32-bit)Amiga 1000 Amiga 500 Amiga 2000 (Amiga 2500) Amiga 1500 Amiga CDTV Amiga CD32 Amiga 3000 (Amiga 3000UX Amiga 3000T) Amiga 500+ Amiga 600 Amiga 1200 Amiga 4000 Amiga 4000TCategories: Home computers Personal computers CBM hardware Commodore 64Hidden categories: Articles with unsourced statements since November 2008 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since February 2008
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This article is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (November 2008)Commodore 128TypeHome computerRelease date1985Discontinued1989Operating systemMicrosoft BASIC 7.0Digital Research CP/M 3.0CPUMOS Tech. 8502 @ 2 MHzZilog Z80A @ 4 MHzMemory128KBThe Commodore 128 (C128, CBM 128, C=128) home/personal computer was the last 8-bit machine commercially released by Commodore Business Machines (CBM). Introduced in January of 1985 at the CES in Las Vegas, it appeared three years after its predecessor, the bestselling Commodore 64. The primary hardware designer of the C128 was Bil Herd.Contents1 Technical overview 1.1 C128 Mode 1.2 CP/M Mode 1.3 C64 Mode 1.4 RAM setup 2 Commodore 128D 3 Market performance 4 C128's hidden features 5 Specifications 6 External links 7 References // Technical overviewOriginal Commodore 128 boxThe C128 was a significantly expanded successor to the C64 and unlike the earlier Plus/4 it remained compatible. The new machine featured 128KB of RAM (externally expandable to 640 KB) and an 80-column RGB monitor output (driven by the 8563 VDC chip with 16KB dedicated video RAM, although following the release of the 128D later "flat" 128s had 64KB of VRAM), as well as a redesigned case/keyboard with a numeric keypad. The 128's power supply was vastly improved over the 64's troublesome design. It was much larger, with cooling vents and a fuse to protect it from blowing up. Instead of the 6510 CPU of the C64, the C128 incorporated a two-CPU design. The primary CPU, the 8502, was a slightly improved version of the 6510; its main addition was the ability to run at a 2MHz clock rate (being quite beneficial to the 80 column display, but making it difficult to display a second signal to a second monitor, such as that used for a 40 column display). The second CPU was a Zilog Z80 which was used for ensuring CP/M compatibility and for mode-selection of the computer upon boot-up. The two processors could not run concurrently, thus the C128 was not a multiprocessing system.The C128 had three modes of operation: C128 Mode (native mode), which ran at 1 or 2MHz with the 8502 CPU and had both 40- and 80-column text modes available; CP/M Mode, which used the Z80 second CPU in either 40- or 80-column text mode; and C64 Mode, which was very nearly 100% compatible with the earlier computer. None of these modes would have been possible as implemented on the C128 without the Z80 chip. The Z80 controls the bus on initial boot-up and checks to see if there are any C64/C128 cartridges present, and if the Commodore key (C64-mode selector) is active on boot-up. Based on what it finds, it will switch to the appropriate mode of operation.Some 128s suffered from a reliability problem caused by the electromagnetic shield over the internal board. The shield had fingers that rested on the top of the major chips to conduct heat into the shield which then acted as a large heatsink. A combination of poor contact and the fact that plastic encased chips do not lose heat that way plus the shield being made from mu-metal (a poor heat conductor) saw some chips overheat and fail. The SID sound chip was particularly vulnerable in this respect as it operated from a 9 volt supply. The situation could be vastly improved by removing the shield completely.C128 ModeC128 Main boardWhile the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were generally considered excellent, the popular home computer was the subject of a number of perennial criticisms. The 40-column VIC-II video display, while excellent for gaming, was often considered inadequate for productivity applications such as word processing. The lack of a numeric keypad was also an issue with some office suite software. Furthermore, the 2.0 revision of Commodore BASIC that was incorporated into the C64 was quite limited, and lacked keywords to handle the system's graphical and sound capabilities. These features had to be accessed via cumbersome PEEK and POKE commands, or by custom-written machine language routines. Also criticized was the lack of a hardware reset button, an essential device when developing assembly language routines. Finally, the C64's 1541 disk drive was almost universally condemned as slow and unreliable.The designers of the C128 succeeded in rectifying most of these concerns. A new chip, the VDC, provided the C128 with an 80-column color CGA-compatible display (also called RGBI for RGB plus Intensity). The new 8502 CPU was completely backward-compatible with the C64's 6510, but could run at double the speed if desired. However, the VIC-II chip which controlled the 40-column display could not operate at the faster clock rate, so the 40 column display is not available in Fast mode. A numeric keypad was added to the keyboard, as were various other keys. The C64's rudimentary BASIC 2.0 was replaced with the far more flexible and powerful BASIC 7.0, which included keywords designed specifically to take advantage of the machine's capabilities, and also incorporated a sprite editor and machine language monitor. The screen editor was further improved. A reset button was added to the system.Three new disk drives were introduced in conjunction with the C128, the 1570, 1571, and 3.5 inch 1581 drives promising far faster transfer speeds via a new "burst mode". With these three drives, more complex drive data arrangements were also made available to Commodore users in the nature of "track and sector" oriented subdirectories, a feature not available to PC users, who instead had to convolute their file allocation tables to do the same thing. The disk drives also had more on-board RAM than their predecessors, the 1540 and 1541 drives.The C128 also had twice the RAM of the C64, and a far higher proportion was available for BASIC programming, due to the new MMU bankswitching chip. This feature made it possible for BASIC program code to be stored separately from variables, greatly enhancing the machine's ability to handle complex programs.The C128's greater hardware capabilities, especially the increased RAM, screen display resolution, and serial bus speed, made it the preferred platform for running the GEOS graphical operating system.CP/M ModeThe second of the C128's two CPUs was the Zilog Z80, which allowed the C128 to run CP/M; the machine came with CP/M 3.0, aka CP/M Plus (backward compatible with CP/M 2.2) and ADM31/3A terminal emulation. To make a large application software library instantly available at launch, the Commodore 128 CP/M and accompanying 1571 floppy disk drive was designed to run almost all Kaypro-specific CP/M software without modification.Unfortunately, the C128 ran CP/M noticeably slower than most dedicated CP/M systems, as the Z80 processor ran at an effective speed of only 2MHz (instead of the more common 46MHz) and because it used CP/M 3.0, whose complexity made it inherently slower than the earlier, more widespread, CP/M 2.2 system. From the source code of the C128 CP/M implementation, it is clear that the engineers originally planned to make it possible to run CP/M in the "fast" mode as well, with the 40-column output turned off and the Z80 running at an effective 4MHz; however, this did not work on the released C128 hardware.A possibly unique feature of the C128 among CP/M systems was that some of the low-level BIOS services were executed by the 8502 chip instead of the Z80. The latter transferred control to the 8502 after having placed the pertinent parameter values in designated memory locations. The Z80 then turned itself off, being awoken by the 8502 at completion of the BIOS routine, with status value(s) available in RAM for inspection.C64 ModeBy incorporating the original C64 BASIC and KERNAL ROMs in their entirety (16 KB total), the C128 achieves almost 100% compatibility with C64 software. The C64 mode can be accessed in one of three ways:Hold down the Commodore logo key when booting the system Enter the GO 64 command in BASIC 7.0 immediate mode Boot with a C64 cartridge plugged in Some of the few C64 programs that fail on a C128 run correctly when the CAPS LOCK key is pressed down (or the ASCII/National key on international C128 models). This has to do with the larger built-in I/O port of the C128's CPU. Whereas the SHIFT LOCK key found on both C64 and C128 is simply a mechanical latch for the left SHIFT key, the CAPS LOCK key on the C128 can be read via the 8502's built-in I/O port. A few C64 programs are confused by this extra I/O bit; keeping the CAPS LOCK key in the down position will force the I/O line low, matching the C64's configuration and resolving the issue.A handful of C64 programs wrote to $D030 (53296), often as part of a loop initializing the VIC-II chip registers. This memory-mapped register, unused in the C64, operated as a selector for 2 MHz mode in the C128. Since it was not disabled in C64 mode, an inadvertent write could blank the 40-column display by putting the CPU into fast mode. Fortunately, very few programs suffered from this flaw. In July 1986, COMPUTE!'s Gazette published a type-in program that exploited this minor incompatibility, by using a raster interrupt to enable fast mode when the bottom of the visible screen was reached, and then disable it when screen rendering began again at the top. By using fast mode during the vertical blank period, standard video display was maintained while increasing overall execution speed by about 20%. [1] [2]An easy way to tell the C128's C64 mode and a real C64 apart, typically used from within a running program, is to write a value different from $FF (255) to memory address $D02F (53295), which is used to decode the extra keys of the C128 (the numerical keypad and some other keys). On the 64 this memory location will always contain the value $FF no matter what was written to it, but on a C128 in 64 mode the value of the location姊?memory-mapped register姊抋n be changed. Thus, checking the location's value after writing to it will reveal the actual hardware platform.RAM setupTo handle the relatively large amounts of installable RAM, tenfold the 8502's 64 KB address space, the C128 used the 8722 MMU chip to create different memory maps, in which different combinations of RAM and ROM would appear according to bit patterns written into the MMU's confguration register. While the MMU was designed to handle more than 128 KB, the versions that were actually produced and used in the C128 cannot do so.Although referred to as RAM expanders, Commodore's RAM Expansion Units were not expansion devices at all, as they utilized an external DMA controller to copy bytes between the C-128's RAM and the RAM in the "expansion unit." This function was essentially independent of the MMU's memory control features.Commodore 128DA Commodore 128DThe Commodore 128D was released in the fall of 1985 in Europe. The US release date was in the summer of 1986. It was an updated version of the C128 with a detached keyboard and a 1571 disk drive in the same box as the main system unit, providing a sleeker, more professional-looking appearance, much like that of a desktop PC. In Europe the first C128Ds came in a plastic case with a side-mounted carrying handle and were technically exactly the same as a C128 with the 1571 disk drive. Additionally these models were equipped with a somewhat noisy cooling fan, leading to the model sometimes being referred to as the "128 Diesel".Later models of the C128D came in a metal case; among these were the Commodore 128DCR (CR = cost reduced), which was widely sold in Canada and the USA. These later models had some minor improvements. The internal design was more integrated to save production costs, but also improved the thermal design, so that a fan was supposedly not needed anymore (later experience proved that the fan was a worthwhile addition and many C128Ds were so modified).Inside, the C128D ROMs contained several bug fixes, and the 8563 VDC chip (in the C128DCR, the 8568) was equipped with the maximum capacity 64 KB of video RAM four times that of the original C128. This permitted the C128D to do higher-resolution graphics with more colors in RGB mode, although very little software took advantage of this. With or without the extra RAM, the VDC's high-resolution graphics modes were inaccessible from the C128's BASIC. They could only be utilized by calls to screen editor ROM primitives (or their assembly language equivalents), or via third-party BASIC language extensions. The most popular such toolkit was Free Spirit Software's "BASIC 8", which added high-resolution VDC graphics commands to CBM BASIC. BASIC 8 was available on two disks (editor disk and runtime disk) and with a ROM chip for installation in the C128's internal Function ROM socket.Market performanceThe system architecture of the C128, which in case of a C128D with memory expansion included three CPUs, five types of RAM memory, three operating modes, two system speeds, two graphics chips and two completely different low-level floppy disk encoding schemes was positively baroque and not at all orthogonal. This high complexity was probably a factor in the limited success of the C128姊憉t of course also much of the reason for the machine's popularity among long-time CBM users and 'hackers', who enjoyed the capability of full C64 compatibility in a computer which was also fully usable as a BBS terminal and general office application platform in 80-column mode running native or CP/M programs. Another selling point for this group of users was the full-featured business keyboard, which was the first 'real' keyboard of a CBM computer since the less flexible (and thence, less popular) CBM-II/B series.Because the C128 would run virtually all C64 software, and because the next-generation, 32/16-bit home computers, primarily the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST, were gaining ground, relatively little software for the C128's native mode appeared (probably on the order of 100200 fully commercial titles, plus the usual share of public domain and magazine type-in programs). While the C128 sold a total number of 4million units between 1985 and 1989, its popularity paled in comparison to that of its predecessor. This has been blamed on the lack of native software and on Commodore's less-aggressive marketing, which was mostly focused on the Amiga. An additional explanation may be found in the fact that the C64 sold huge numbers to people primarily interested in computer games, which the more expensive C128 didn't add much value towards improving (with the exception of a few Infocom text adventures). The C128 was certainly a better business machine than the C64, but not really a better gaming machine, and people who wanted business machines bought IBM PC clones almost exclusively by the time the C128 was released. With its advanced BASIC programming language, CP/M compatibility and "user-friendly" native software packages such as Jane, Commodore attempted to create a low-end business market for the 128, branding it a "Personal Computer" on the case, but this strategy was not successful in the face of low-cost IBM-compatibles like the Leading Edge Model D and Tandy 1000 that, in some cases, sold for less than a complete 128 system. There was a professional-level CAD program, Home Designer by BRiWALL, but again, most of this work was done on PCs by the 128s era. The main reason that the C128 still sold fairly well was probably that it was a much better machine for hobbyist programming than the C64.Also, when the C128(D/DCR) was discontinued in 1989, it was reported to cost nearly as much to manufacture as the 16-bit Amiga 500, even though the C128D had to sell for several hundred dollars less to keep the Amiga's high-value marketing image intact.Bil Herd commented on the Wikipedia C128 article, stating: "We considered the C128 to be a holding action until the next generation computers arrived, we were trying to up the game as far as expectations for new machines and buy a year, two at the max in the process. In that we exceeded our initial goals but probably due in part to Commodore's lackluster follow through on marketing and selling the Amiga."[citation needed]C128's hidden featuresThe 40 column version of the C128 Easter egg screen, with a listing of, and a message from, the machine's main developers. Notice the term "herdware", named after Bil Herd.Easter egg: Entering the command "SYS 32800,123,45,6" in native mode reveals the 40-column screen shown to the right: The Commodore 128's BASIC 7.0, the programming language which comes built-in with the computer, can be crashed or cause the computer to reboot by executing PRINT""+-X (where X is any integer), depending on the number entered for X. This bug is present in all known versions of Microsoft's 6502 BASIC interpreter, including the BASIC of all other 8-bit Commodore machines, as well as Applesoft BASIC. Entering the keywords QUIT or OFF will produce an "?UNIMPLEMENTED COMMAND ERROR". These commands are holdovers from a planned but never produced LCD-display portable computer and were intended to exit from the BASIC interpreter and to ignore keyboard input during sensitive program execution, respectively. The earlier ROM revision of the C128 includes a rather obvious bug. When in "CAPS LOCK" mode, each of the alphabetic keys type properly in upper-case except the "q", which remains lower-case. Multiple zero page and CPU stack locations can be defined by twiddling some bits in the C128's MMU, which theoretically would make multitasking a possibility. In practice, the lack of hardware memory protection would create a difficult-to-manage environment in which to run a preemptive kernel. Grounding the cartridge port's /EXROM and/or /GAME lines will cause the computer to automatically start up in C64 mode. This design faithfully duplicates the C64 behavior when a cartridge (such as Simons' BASIC) is plugged into the port and asserts either of these lines. C128 mode cartridges are recognized and started by the kernal polling defined locations in the memory map. SpecificationsCPUs: MOS Technology 8502 @ 2 MHz (1 MHz selectable for C64 compatibility mode) Zilog Z80@ 4 MHz (effectively running at 2 MHz due to stopping half the time to allow VIC-II video chip access to system bus) MMU: Memory Management Unit controls 8502/Z80 processor selection; ROM/RAM banking; common RAM areas; relocation of zero page and stack RAM: 128 KB system RAM, 2 KB 4-bit dedicated color RAM (for the VIC-II E), 16 KB or 64 KB dedicated video RAM (for the VDC), up to 512 KB REU expansion RAM ROM: 72 KB (28 KB BASIC 7.0, 4 KB MLM, 8 KB C128 KERNAL, 4 KB screen editor, 4 KB Z80 BIOS, ca. 9 KB C64 BASIC 2.0, ca. 7 KB C64 KERNAL, 4 KB C64 (or international) character generator, 4 KB C128 (or national) character generator) expandable by 32 KB Internal Function ROM (optional; for placement in motherboard socket) and/or 32KB External Function ROM (optional; for placement in REU socket) Video: MOS 8564/8566 VIC-II E (NTSC/PAL) for 40-column composite video (a TV set can be used instead of a monitor if desired) Direct register access through memory-mapped I/O Text mode: 4025, 16 colors Graphics modes: 160200, 320200 8 hardware sprites 2 KB dedicated 4-bit color RAM, otherwise uses main memory as video RAM MOS 8563 VDC (or, in C128DCR, the 8568) for 80-column digital RGBI component video, compatible with IBM PC CGA monitors, monochrome display also possible on composite video monitors; usable with TV sets only when the set has SCART and/or baseband video-in sockets in addition to the antenna connector. Color is possible through SCART, only monochrome through baseband video-in. Indirect register access (address register, data register in mapped memory) Text mode: Fully programmable, typically 8025 or 80x50, 16 colors (not the same as those of the VIC-II) Graphics modes: Fully programmable, typical modes are 320x200, 640200, and 640400 (interlaced). No hardware sprites 16 KB dedicated video RAM (64 KB standard in C128DCR, C128/C128D was upgradable to 64 KB), accessible to the CPU only in a doubly indirect method (address register, data register on VDC, which in turn are addressed through address register, data register in mapped memory) limited blitter functionality helps to alleviate this RAM bottleneck Sound: MOS 6581 SID (or, in the C128DCR, the MOS 8580 SID) synthesizer chip 3 voices, ADSR-controllable Standard SID waveforms (triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise, and certain combined modes) Multi-mode filter 3 ring modulators Cost-reduced and noise-reduced version of C64's MOS 6581; some early C128s actually have 6581s I/O Ports: All the ports of C64 100% compatible plus the following: Higher speed possible on the serial bus Expansion port more flexibly programmable RGBI video output (DB9-connector, logically similar to the IBM PC CGA connector, but with an added monochrome composite signal. This added signal causes a minor incompatibility with certain CGA monitors that can be rectified by breaking off pin 7 from the plug at one end of the connecting cable.) External linksCommodore 128 Systems Guide VICE: Versatile Commodore Emulator Commodore128 Alive! ReferencesGreenley, Larry, et al. (1986). Commodore 128 Programmer's Reference Guide. Bantam Computer Books/Commodore Publications. ISBN 0-553-34378-5. Gerits, K.; Schieb, J.; Thrun, F. (1986). Commodore 128 Internals. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Abacus Software, Inc. ISBN 0916439429. Original German edition (1985), D榛秙eldorf, West Germany: DATA BECKER GmbH & Co. KG. v?d?eList of Commodore microcomputers6502-based (8-bit)MOS/CBM KIM-1 PET/CBM CBM-II (aka B/P series) VIC-20/VC-20 C64 SX-64 Educator 64 C16 & 116 Plus/4 C12868000-based (16-bit / 32-bit)Amiga 1000 Amiga 500 Amiga 2000 (Amiga 2500) Amiga 1500 Amiga CDTV Amiga CD32 Amiga 3000 (Amiga 3000UX Amiga 3000T) Amiga 500+ Amiga 600 Amiga 1200 Amiga 4000 Amiga 4000TCategories: Home computers Personal computers CBM hardware Commodore 64Hidden categories: Articles with unsourced statements since November 2008 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since February 2008
These info's feature products include:
Limit SwitchCWL Limit Switch Insulation resistance100mΩ min. (at 500VDC) and non-current-carrying metal parts
Video Input Switch Circuit Breaker Switch Paddle Flow Switch low voltage fuses Diseqc Switch 4x1 remote control switches Audio Input Switch bilge pump switch Temperature Control Switch Pull Chain Switch Push Button Switch component video switcher light dimmer switch Gas Pressure Switch Energy Saving Switch low voltage fuses Paddle Flow Switch Circuit Breaker Switch Power Tool Switch Video Input Switch ceiling fan dimmer ceiling fan switch electrical switch European Switch Digital Audio Switch foot control switch Data Transfer Switch Door Switch ford ignition switch High Temperature Switch Low Voltage Switch IC Socket Humidity Switch computer monitor switches dual speed switch One Gang Switch Connector Switch Rocker Switches Point Switch Stereo Switch Reversing Switch Voice Switch Industry Switch Four Switch Vertical Slide Switch
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